Linguistic Trees and Diagrams

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[linguistics]{forest}

\begin{document}

\section{Basic Syntax Trees}

% Simple sentence structure
\begin{forest}
[S
  [NP [Det [the]] [N [cat]]]
  [VP [V [sat]] [PP [P [on]] [NP [Det [the]] [N [mat]]]]]
]
\end{forest}

% More complex sentence
\begin{forest}
[S
  [NP [Det [The]] [Adj [quick]] [N [fox]]]
  [VP 
    [V [jumped]]
    [PP [P [over]] [NP [Det [the]] [Adj [lazy]] [N [dog]]]]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

% Embedded clause
\begin{forest}
[S
  [NP [N [John]]]
  [VP
    [V [thinks]]
    [CP
      [C [that]]
      [S
        [NP [N [Mary]]]
        [VP [V [left]]]
      ]
    ]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Movement and Traces}

% Wh-movement
\begin{forest}
[CP
  [Spec,CP [What$_i$]]
  [C'
    [C [did]]
    [S
      [NP [John]]
      [VP [V [see]] [NP [t$_i$]]]
    ]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

% Passive construction
\begin{forest}
[S
  [NP [The book]$_i$]
  [VP
    [V [was]]
    [VP
      [V [read]]
      [NP [t$_i$]]
      [PP [P [by]] [NP [Mary]]]
    ]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\end{document}

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[linguistics]{forest}
\usepackage{amsmath}

\begin{document}

\section{X-bar Theory}

% X-bar structure
\begin{forest}
[XP
  [Spec]
  [X'
    [X$^0$]
    [YP [Complement]]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

% Detailed VP structure
\begin{forest}
[VP
  [Spec,VP [John]]
  [V'
    [V$^0$ [give]]
    [VP
      [V'
        [V$^0$ [t$_{give}$]]
        [DP [the book]]
        [PP [to Mary]]
      ]
    ]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Minimalist Syntax}

% Phase structure
\begin{forest}
[CP, draw, thick
  [DP$_1$ [who]]
  [C'
    [C$^0$ [$+$wh, $+$Q]]
    [TP, draw, thick
      [T'
        [T$^0$ [did]]
        [vP
          [DP [John]]
          [v'
            [v$^0$ [t$_{see}$]]
            [VP
              [V$^0$ [see]]
              [DP [t$_1$]]
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

% Feature checking
\begin{forest}
[T$^0$, name=T
  [T [+finite]]
  [AGR [$\phi$-features] [uCase:\_\_\_]]
]
\draw[->] (T) to[out=south east,in=north] node[right] {Agree} ++(2,-1);
\end{forest}

\section{Morphological Structure}

% Word structure
\begin{forest}
[Word
  [Stem
    [Root [play]]
    [Deriv [-er]]
  ]
  [Infl [-s]]
]
\end{forest}

% Complex morphology
\begin{forest}
[Word
  [Prefix [un-]]
  [Stem
    [Root [break]]
    [Suffix [-able]]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Semantic Composition}

% Lambda calculus notation
\begin{forest}
[VP: $\lambda x.\text{love}(x)(\text{mary})$
  [V: $\lambda y \lambda x.\text{love}(x)(y)$ [loves]]
  [NP: $\text{mary}$ [Mary]]
]
\end{forest}

% Type-driven semantics
\begin{forest}
[S: $t$
  [NP: $e$ [John]]
  [VP: $\langle e,t \rangle$
    [V: $\langle e, \langle e,t \rangle \rangle$ [likes]]
    [NP: $e$ [pizza]]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\end{document}

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[linguistics]{forest}
\usepackage{multicol}

\begin{document}

\section{Cross-linguistic Comparison}

\textbf{English SVO:}
\begin{forest}
[S
  [NP [John]]
  [VP [V [sees]] [NP [Mary]]]
]
\end{forest}

\textbf{Japanese SOV:}
\begin{forest}
[S
  [NP [Taro-ga]]
  [VP [NP [Hanako-o]] [V [miru]]]
]
\end{forest}

\textbf{Welsh VSO:}
\begin{forest}
[S
  [V [Gwelodd]]
  [NP [Siôn]]
  [NP [Mair]]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Head Movement}

\textbf{French V-to-I movement:}
\begin{forest}
[IP
  [NP [Jean]]
  [I'
    [I$^0$ [mange$_i$] [+AGR]]
    [VP
      [V$^0$ [t$_i$]]
      [NP [la pomme]]
    ]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Binding Theory}

% Reflexives and anaphors
\begin{forest}
[S
  [NP$_i$ [John]]
  [VP
    [V [saw]]
    [NP [himself$_i$]]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

% Binding domains
\begin{forest}
[S$_1$
  [NP$_i$ [John]]
  [VP
    [V [thinks]]
    [S$_2$
      [NP$_j$ [Mary]]
      [VP [V [likes]] [NP [him$_{i/*j}$]]]
    ]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Government and Binding}

% Case assignment
\begin{forest}
[S
  [NP$_{\text{NOM}}$ [John]]
  [VP
    [V [sees]]
    [NP$_{\text{ACC}}$ [Mary]]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

% Exceptional Case Marking
\begin{forest}
[S
  [NP$_{\text{NOM}}$ [I]]
  [VP
    [V [believe]]
    [S
      [NP$_{\text{ACC}}$ [him]]
      [VP [V [to]] [VP [V [be]] [AP [intelligent]]]]
    ]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\end{document}

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{phonrule}
\usepackage{array}
\usepackage{amsmath}

\begin{document}

\section{Distinctive Features}

% Feature matrix
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c}
& /p/ & /b/ & /m/ \\
\hline
consonantal & + & + & + \\
sonorant & $-$ & $-$ & + \\
voice & $-$ & + & + \\
nasal & $-$ & $-$ & + \\
labial & + & + & + \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

% Natural classes
\textbf{Natural Classes:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Stops: [$-$sonorant, $-$continuant]
\item Fricatives: [$-$sonorant, +continuant]
\item Nasals: [+sonorant, +nasal]
\item Liquids: [+sonorant, $-$nasal, $-$syllabic]
\end{itemize}

\section{Phonological Rules}

% Rule notation
\textbf{Devoicing rule:}
\phonb
\phonfeat{+obstruent \\ -sonorant}
\phonc
\phonrightarrow
\phonfeat{-voice}
\phonc
/ \phonc \_\_\_ \phonfeat{-voice}
\phonc
\phone

\textbf{Vowel harmony:}
\phonb
\phonfeat{+syllabic \\ -consonantal}
\phonc
\phonrightarrow
\phonfeat{$\alpha$back \\ $\alpha$round}
\phonc
/ \phonfeat{$\alpha$back \\ $\alpha$round} C$_0$ \_\_\_
\phone

\section{Autosegmental Phonology}

% Tone representation
\textbf{Tone spreading:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
% Skeletal tier
\node at (0,0) {C};
\node at (1,0) {V};
\node at (2,0) {C};
\node at (3,0) {V};

% Tonal tier
\node at (1,1) {H};
\node at (3,1) {L};

% Association lines
\draw (1,0.2) -- (1,0.8);
\draw (3,0.2) -- (3,0.8);
\draw[dashed] (1,0.8) -- (3,0.8);
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

% Metrical structure
\textbf{Metrical grid:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
% Word level
\node at (2,3) {*};
% Foot level
\node at (1,2) {*};
\node at (3,2) {*};
% Syllable level
\node at (0.5,1) {*};
\node at (1.5,1) {*};
\node at (2.5,1) {*};
\node at (3.5,1) {*};
% Segments
\node at (0.5,0) {te};
\node at (1.5,0) {le};
\node at (2.5,0) {vi};
\node at (3.5,0) {sion};

% Grid lines
\draw (2,2.8) -- (2,3.2);
\draw (1,1.8) -- (1,2.2);
\draw (3,1.8) -- (3,2.2);
\foreach \x in {0.5,1.5,2.5,3.5}
  \draw (\x,0.8) -- (\x,1.2);
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\section{Optimality Theory}

% Constraint tableau
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l||c|c|c|}
\hline
/input/ & CONSTRAINT1 & CONSTRAINT2 & CONSTRAINT3 \\
\hline
\hline
$\rightarrow$ candidate1 & & * & \\
\hline
candidate2 & *! & & \\
\hline
candidate3 & & ** & * \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

\end{document}

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{forest}
\usepackage{tikz}

\begin{document}

\section{Prosodic Hierarchy}

% Prosodic tree
\begin{forest}
[Utterance
  [Intonational Phrase
    [Phonological Phrase
      [Prosodic Word
        [Foot [$\sigma$ [$\sigma$]]]
        [Foot [$\sigma$ [$\sigma$]]]
      ]
      [Prosodic Word
        [Foot [$\sigma$]]
      ]
    ]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Syllable Structure}

% Syllable internal structure
\begin{forest}
[$\sigma$
  [Onset [C]]
  [Rhyme
    [Nucleus [V]]
    [Coda [C]]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

% Complex onset
\begin{forest}
[$\sigma$
  [Onset [C [s]] [C [t]]]
  [Rhyme
    [Nucleus [V [a]]]
    [Coda [C [p]]]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Metrical Structure}

% Binary branching feet
\begin{forest}
[Foot
  [$\sigma$ [strong]]
  [$\sigma$ [weak]]
]
\end{forest}

% Ternary branching
\begin{forest}
[Foot
  [$\sigma$ [strong]]
  [$\sigma$ [weak]]
  [$\sigma$ [weak]]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Morpho-Phonological Interface}

% Lexical Phonology levels
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}[scale=1.2]
% Level 1
\draw (0,3) rectangle (4,4);
\node at (2,3.5) {Level 1: Class I affixes + Rules};

% Level 2  
\draw (0,2) rectangle (4,3);
\node at (2,2.5) {Level 2: Class II affixes + Rules};

% Post-lexical
\draw (0,1) rectangle (4,2);
\node at (2,1.5) {Post-lexical: Phrasal rules};

% Arrows
\draw[->] (2,2.8) -- (2,2.2);
\draw[->] (2,1.8) -- (2,1.2);

% Word boundaries
\draw[thick] (-0.5,3) -- (-0.5,1);
\draw[thick] (4.5,3) -- (4.5,1);
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\section{Intonational Phonology}

% ToBI notation
\textbf{ToBI Transcription:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
% Text tier
\node at (0,0) {What};
\node at (1,0) {did};
\node at (2,0) {John};
\node at (3,0) {eat};
\node at (4,0) {?};

% Tonal tier
\node at (2,1) {H*};
\node at (4,1) {L*};
\node at (4,1.5) {H\%};

% Association lines
\draw (2,0.2) -- (2,0.8);
\draw (4,0.2) -- (4,0.8);
\draw (4,1.2) -- (4,1.3);

% F0 contour
\draw[thick] (0,2) .. controls (1,2.5) and (1.5,2.8) .. (2,3) 
            .. controls (2.5,2.8) and (3,2.2) .. (4,2.5);
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\end{document}

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{forest}
\usepackage{tikz}

\begin{document}

\section{Indo-European Family Tree}

\begin{forest}
[Proto-Indo-European
  [Germanic
    [West Germanic
      [English]
      [German]
      [Dutch]
    ]
    [North Germanic
      [Swedish]
      [Norwegian]
      [Danish]
    ]
    [East Germanic
      [Gothic$^\dagger$]
    ]
  ]
  [Celtic
    [Insular Celtic
      [Gaelic [Irish] [Scottish]]
      [Brythonic [Welsh] [Breton]]
    ]
  ]
  [Italic
    [Latin$^\dagger$]
    [Romance
      [Spanish]
      [French]
      [Italian]
    ]
  ]
  [Slavic
    [West Slavic [Polish] [Czech]]
    [East Slavic [Russian] [Ukrainian]]
    [South Slavic [Serbian] [Bulgarian]]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Sound Changes}

% Grimm's Law
\textbf{Grimm's Law (Proto-Germanic):}
\begin{align}
\text{PIE } *p, *t, *k &\rightarrow \text{PGmc } *f, *\theta, *x \\
\text{PIE } *b, *d, *g &\rightarrow \text{PGmc } *p, *t, *k \\
\text{PIE } *b^h, *d^h, *g^h &\rightarrow \text{PGmc } *b, *d, *g
\end{align}

% Comparative method
\textbf{Comparative Reconstruction:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l|l|l}
& Latin & Greek & Sanskrit & Gothic & Reconstruction \\
\hline
'father' & pater & patēr & pitár- & fadar & *ph₂tér- \\
'three' & trēs & treîs & tráyas & þreis & *tréyes \\
'new' & novus & néos & návas & niujis & *néwos \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

\section{Phonological Correspondences}

% Sound correspondence table
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c}
Proto-Lang & Lang A & Lang B & Lang C & Example \\
\hline
*p & p & f & p & *pater > pater/faðir/padre \\
*t & t & θ & t & *treyes > tres/þreis/tres \\
*k & k & x & k & *ḱm̥tóm > centum/hund/cent \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

\section{Lexical Diffusion}

% Wave model
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
% Circles representing linguistic areas
\draw (0,0) circle (1.5);
\draw (2,0) circle (1.5);
\draw (1,1.5) circle (1.5);

% Labels
\node at (-0.5,-0.5) {Dialect A};
\node at (2.5,-0.5) {Dialect B};
\node at (1,2) {Dialect C};

% Innovation waves
\draw[dashed] (1,0) circle (0.8);
\draw[dashed] (1,0) circle (1.2);
\node at (1,-1.8) {Innovation spreading};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\end{document}

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{forest}
\usepackage{tikz}
\usepackage{amsmath}

\begin{document}

\section{Information Structure}

% Topic-Focus articulation
\textbf{Topic-Focus Structure:}
\begin{forest}
[S
  [Topic [The book$_i$]]
  [Focus [John read t$_i$]]
]
\end{forest}

% Given-New structure
\textbf{Given-New Information:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
\draw (0,0) rectangle (3,1);
\draw (3,0) rectangle (6,1);
\node at (1.5,0.5) {GIVEN};
\node at (4.5,0.5) {NEW};

\node at (1.5,-0.5) {John};
\node at (4.5,-0.5) {bought a car};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\section{Discourse Representation}

% DRS (Discourse Representation Structure)
\textbf{DRT Box:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
\draw (0,0) rectangle (4,3);
\draw (0,1.5) -- (4,1.5);

% Universe
\node at (2,2.25) {$x, y$};

% Conditions
\node at (1,1) {man($x$)};
\node at (1,0.5) {car($y$)};
\node at (3,0.75) {buy($x,y$)};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

% Accessibility relations
\textbf{DRS Accessibility:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
% Main DRS
\draw (0,0) rectangle (3,2);
\draw (0,1.2) -- (3,1.2);
\node at (1.5,1.6) {$x$};
\node at (1.5,0.6) {man($x$)};

% Embedded DRS
\draw (4,0.2) rectangle (6.5,1.8);
\draw (4,1.2) -- (6.5,1.2);
\node at (5.25,1.5) {$y$};
\node at (5.25,0.6) {car($y$)};

% Arrow
\draw[->] (3,1) -- (4,1);
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\section{Speech Act Theory}

% Searle's taxonomy
\textbf{Speech Act Classification:}
\begin{forest}
[Speech Acts
  [Representatives [assert] [conclude] [believe]]
  [Directives [request] [command] [invite]]
  [Commissives [promise] [threaten] [offer]]
  [Expressives [thank] [apologize] [congratulate]]
  [Declarations [pronounce] [christen] [fire]]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Conversational Analysis}

% Turn-taking system
\textbf{Turn-Taking Rules:}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Current speaker selects next
\item Self-selection by others
\item Current speaker continues
\end{enumerate}

% Adjacency pairs
\textbf{Adjacency Pairs:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l|l}
First Pair Part & Second Pair Part \\
\hline
Question & Answer \\
Invitation & Acceptance/Decline \\
Greeting & Greeting \\
Compliment & Acceptance/Deflection \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

\end{document}

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{tikz}
\usepackage{pgfplots}
\usepackage{forest}

\begin{document}

\section{Frequency Distributions}

% Zipf's law visualization
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{axis}[
  xlabel={Rank},
  ylabel={Frequency},
  title={Zipf's Law},
  xmode=log,
  ymode=log
]
\addplot coordinates {
  (1,1000) (2,500) (3,333) (4,250) (5,200)
  (10,100) (20,50) (50,20) (100,10) (1000,1)
};
\end{axis}
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\section{Syntactic Parsing}

% Parse tree with probabilities
\begin{forest}
[S [0.8]
  [NP [0.6] [Det [0.9] [the]] [N [0.7] [cat]]]
  [VP [0.7] [V [0.8] [sat]] [PP [0.5] [P [0.9] [on]] [NP [0.6] [Det [0.9] [the]] [N [0.6] [mat]]]]]
]
\end{forest}

\section{N-gram Models}

% Markov chain for bigrams
\textbf{Bigram Transition Probabilities:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}[scale=1.5]
% States
\node[circle,draw] (the) at (0,0) {the};
\node[circle,draw] (cat) at (2,0) {cat};
\node[circle,draw] (dog) at (0,-2) {dog};
\node[circle,draw] (runs) at (2,-2) {runs};

% Transitions
\draw[->] (the) to[bend left] node[above] {0.4} (cat);
\draw[->] (the) to[bend right] node[left] {0.6} (dog);
\draw[->] (cat) to[bend left] node[right] {0.8} (runs);
\draw[->] (dog) to[bend left] node[below] {0.9} (runs);
\draw[->] (runs) to[bend left] node[below] {0.3} (the);
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\section{Semantic Vectors}

% Word embedding visualization
\textbf{Word Vector Space:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
% Axes
\draw[->] (0,0) -- (4,0) node[right] {Dimension 1};
\draw[->] (0,0) -- (0,4) node[above] {Dimension 2};

% Word vectors
\node at (1,3) {king};
\node at (3,3.2) {queen};
\node at (0.8,1) {man};
\node at (2.8,1.2) {woman};

% Vector arrows
\draw[->] (0,0) -- (1,3);
\draw[->] (0,0) -- (3,3.2);
\draw[->] (0,0) -- (0.8,1);
\draw[->] (0,0) -- (2.8,1.2);

% Analogy relationship
\draw[dashed] (1,3) -- (0.8,1);
\draw[dashed] (3,3.2) -- (2.8,1.2);
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\section{Corpus Annotation}

% Part-of-speech tagging
\textbf{POS-tagged text:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c}
The & cat & sat & on & the \\
\hline
DET & N & V & P & DET \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

% Dependency parsing
\textbf{Dependency Relations:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
% Words
\node (the1) at (0,0) {The};
\node (cat) at (1,0) {cat};
\node (sat) at (2,0) {sat};
\node (on) at (3,0) {on};
\node (the2) at (4,0) {the};
\node (mat) at (5,0) {mat};

% Dependencies
\draw[->] (cat) to[bend left=45] node[above] {det} (the1);
\draw[->] (sat) to[bend left=45] node[above] {nsubj} (cat);
\draw[->] (sat) to[bend left=45] node[above] {prep} (on);
\draw[->] (on) to[bend left=45] node[above] {pobj} (mat);
\draw[->] (mat) to[bend right=45] node[below] {det} (the2);
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\end{document}

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{tipa}
\usepackage{vowel}
\usepackage{tikz}

\begin{document}

\section{IPA Transcription}

% Phonetic vs phonemic
\textbf{Phonetic:} [\textipa{"ExsEnt}] \\
\textbf{Phonemic:} /\textipa{"aks@nt}/

% Stress and length
\textbf{Primary stress:} \textipa{"f@Un@tIks} \\
\textbf{Secondary stress:} \textipa{,f@Un@"tIks} \\
\textbf{Long vowel:} \textipa{fi:d} \\
\textbf{Half-long:} \textipa{fi\textlengthmark d}

\section{Vowel Systems}

% Vowel chart
\begin{vowel}
\putcvowel[l]{i}{1}
\putcvowel[r]{u}{8}
\putcvowel[l]{e}{2}
\putcvowel[r]{o}{7}
\putcvowel[l]{\ae}{3}
\putcvowel{\textschwa}{4}
\putcvowel[r]{\textturnscripta}{6}
\putcvowel[l]{a}{5}
\end{vowel}

\section{Consonant Charts}

% Place and manner features
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l|c|c|c|c}
& Bilabial & Alveolar & Velar & Glottal \\
\hline
Stops & p b & t d & k g & \textipa{P} \\
Fricatives & f v & s z & x \textipa{G} & h \\
Nasals & m & n & \textipa{N} & \\
Liquids & & l r & & \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

\section{Suprasegmentals}

% Tone notation
\textbf{Level tones:} \\
High: \tone{55}ma \\
Mid: \tone{33}ma \\
Low: \tone{11}ma \\

\textbf{Contour tones:} \\
Rising: \tone{35}ma \\
Falling: \tone{51}ma \\
Dipping: \tone{213}ma \\

% Intonation
\textbf{Intonation patterns:}
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
% Statement
\draw (0,1) node[left] {Statement:} -- (0.5,1) -- (1.5,1.2) -- (2.5,0.8);
\node at (1.25,0.5) {He's coming.};

% Question  
\draw (0,0) node[left] {Question:} -- (0.5,0) -- (1.5,0.2) -- (2.5,0.8);
\node at (1.25,-0.5) {He's coming?};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}

\end{document}

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[linguistics]{forest}
\usepackage{phonrule}
\usepackage{tipa}
\usepackage{booktabs}
\usepackage{amsmath}

\begin{document}

\title{Syntactic Analysis of Wh-Movement in English}
\author{Department of Linguistics}
\maketitle

\section{Introduction}

This paper examines the syntactic properties of wh-movement in English, focusing on the derivation of questions and relative clauses within the Minimalist framework.

\section{Theoretical Background}

Wh-movement is analyzed as an instance of A-bar movement driven by the need to check uninterpretable features on C$^0$.

\subsection{Basic Wh-Question}

\begin{forest}
[CP
  [Spec,CP [What$_i$ [\textsc{+wh}]]]
  [C'
    [C$^0$ [did [\textsc{+Q, +wh}]]]
    [TP
      [T'
        [T$^0$ [t$_{did}$]]
        [vP
          [DP [John]]
          [v'
            [v$^0$ [buy]]
            [VP
              [V$^0$ [t$_{buy}$]]
              [DP [t$_i$]]
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

\section{Feature Checking}

The wh-phrase moves to Spec,CP to check the \textsc{+wh} feature on C$^0$:

\begin{align}
\text{C}^0[\textsc{+Q, +wh}] &\rightarrow \text{Probe} \\
\text{what}[\textsc{+wh}] &\rightarrow \text{Goal} \\
\text{Agree}(\text{C}^0, \text{what}) &\rightarrow \text{Feature checking}
\end{align}

\section{Cross-linguistic Evidence}

\subsection{Wh-in-situ Languages}

In languages like Mandarin Chinese, wh-phrases remain in their base position:

\begin{forest}
[TP
  [DP [Zhangsan]]
  [VP
    [V [mai]]
    [DP [shenme [\textsc{+wh}]]]
  ]
]
\end{forest}

'What did Zhangsan buy?'

\section{Phonological Considerations}

Wh-movement affects prosodic phrasing:

\textbf{In-situ:} (\textipa{dZAn}) (\textipa{bOt}) (\textipa{wVt}) \\
\textbf{Moved:} (\textipa{wVt}) (\textipa{dId}) (\textipa{dZAn}) (\textipa{baI})

\section{Acquisition Data}

Children initially show optional wh-movement:

\begin{enumerate}
\item What did you buy? (adult-like)
\item You bought what? (child grammar)
\item *What you bought? (intermediate stage)
\end{enumerate}

\section{Conclusion}

Wh-movement in English is best analyzed as feature-driven movement to Spec,CP, with cross-linguistic variation in whether movement is overt or covert.

\end{document}